The Sovereign Power of God
Historical Development of the Doctrine
In June of 2025, we began to examine the question of whether or not Jesus could have sinned when He took on a human nature during His First Advent. To answer this question, it is necessary to understand the “Absolute” versus “Ordained” Power of God. We then began a separate article on this sub-doctrine, but later decided to merge it into this fuller treatment of the main doctrine of God’s sovereignty and power. We are also including information of how the doctrines developed historically. Thus, this combined article was finally finished in December 2025.
- God’s Sovereign Power in the Holy Scriptures
- Development of the Doctrine of God’s Sovereign Power in the Early Church (First Five Centuries AD)
- Further Development in the Medieval Period (11th - 14th Centuries AD)
- Further Development during the Reformation (16th - 17th Centuries AD)
- Further Development in Modern Times (18th Century to Today)
- Related Article: The Sovereignty of God and the Free Will of Man (separate page)
God’s Sovereign Power in the Holy Scriptures
We begin with an attempt to give a biblical definition of the Sovereignty of God. It is inseparable from His attribute of absolute power, thus we often speak of it as the the sovereign power of God. It is a central theological doctrine that refers to and encompasses the absolute authority, control, and rule of God over all of His creation (all that exists) throughout all of history, past, present and future. That is, nothing happens without God either directly causing or allowing it to happen. In addition, nothing can oppose, stop or obstruct His will or purposes. There is nothing outside of His control. He has exclusive rights over all His creation.
The Bible contains dozens of verses confirming various elements of God’s sovereign Power. The following is just a sampling:
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. (Gen 1:1). From the very first verse of the Bible God’s power and sovereignty is displayed by creating everything from nothing.
The Lord Almighty has sworn, “Surely, as I have planned, so it will be, and as I have purposed, so it will happen” (Is 14:24). This speaks of God’s rule and guidance over history.
“The God who made the world and everything in it is the Lord of heaven and earth and does not live in temples built by human hands. And he is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything. Rather, he himself gives everyone life and breath and everything else. From one man he made all the nations, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he marked out their appointed times in history and the boundaries of their lands (Ac 17:26). God pre-determined when and where each human being would exist within history.
The Lord has established his throne in heaven, and his kingdom rules over all (Ps 103:19). Nothing is beyond His sovereign control.
The Lord reigns forever; he has established his throne for judgment. He rules the world in righteousness and judges the peoples with equity (Ps 9:7-8).
And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose (Rom 8:28).
The Lord foils the plans of the nations; he thwarts the purposes of the peoples. But the plans of the Lord stand firm forever, the purposes of his heart through all generations (Ps 33:10-11). God predetermines when and how each nation rises and falls.
For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together (Col 1:16-17). Nothing except the divine triune Godhead exists unless created and ruled by Him.
The Lord reigns, he is robed in majesty; the Lord is robed in majesty and armed with strength; indeed, the world is established, firm and secure. Your throne was established long ago; you are from all eternity (Ps 93:1-2). God has existed from eternal past and will exist eternally in the future.
Praise be to the name of God for ever and ever; wisdom and power are his. He changes times and seasons; he deposes kings and raises up others. He gives wisdom to the wise and knowledge to the discerning (Dan 2:20-21). This speaks to His sovereign control over nature and the earthly kingdoms.
He brings princes to naught and reduces the rulers of this world to nothing (Is 40:23). All rulers serve at His pleasure.
“I am the Lord, the God of all mankind. Is anything too hard for me?” (Jer 32:27). Nothing is impossible for God, with a few exceptions such as doing something that is inherently contradictory or that would violate established definitions (such as making square with three sides) or logical impossibilities since this would devolve into absurdity.
Yours, Lord, is the greatness and the power and the glory and the majesty and the splendor, for everything in heaven and earth is yours. Yours, Lord, is the kingdom; you are exalted as head over all. Wealth and honor come from you; you are the ruler of all things. In your hands are strength and power to exalt and give strength to all (1Chr 29:11-12).
“For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways,” declares the Lord. “As the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts” (Is 55:8-9).
“You are worthy, our Lord and God, to receive glory and honor and power, for you created all things, and by your will they were created and have their being” (Rev 4:11).
You alone are the LORD. You made the heavens, even the highest heavens, and all their starry host, the earth and all that is on it, the seas and all that is in them. You give life to everything, and the multitudes of heaven worship you (Neh 9:6). This speaks to His power in Creation.
The Simplicity of God
To understand God’s attributes, we must understand the simplicity of God. God is not a sum of the parts (attributes). In fact, He has no parts, only an indivisible unity. When we say, for example, that “God is good”, this does not mean that goodness is part of His nature, or that he possesses goodness, but that He “is” goodness. That is to say, He Himself defines goodness. He is the very essence of goodness. This is true of each of His attributes, that is, His very essence and attributes are identical. In our limited human understanding, we often make a distinction, but He is only one perfect essence. Thus, when writing theology, sometimes we just have to step back and say with the Apostle Paul:
Oh, the depth of the riches of the wisdom and knowledge of God! How unsearchable his judgments, and his paths beyond tracing out! “Who has known the mind of the Lord? Or who has been his counselor?” “Who has ever given to God, that God should repay them?” For from him and through him and for him are all things. To him be the glory forever! Amen. (Rom 11:33-36).
God’s Will
Closely related to God’s sovereignty is His will. Theologians historically have distinguished between two types of His will. The first is commonly known as God’s decretive will (also called His sovereign will or secret will). These are unconditional decrees that no one can alter or prevent. All of these have or will be fulfilled. The second is known as God’s preceptive will (also called His revealed will). These can (and often are) violated by humans. The best example are the Ten Commandments (Ex 20, Dt 5), but there are many others, including the Sermon on the Mount and other teachings of Jesus.
Additional Biblical Information
The Old Testament (OT) often denotes God’s sovereign power using various names and titles such as Omnipotent King of kings, Lord of lords, Sovereign Lord, Yahweh (I Am Who I Am), El Shaddai (Almighty God), and El Sabaoth (Lord of Hosts or Lord of Heaven’s Armies). In addition, the Scriptures also describe God as Creator (nothing exists without Him), omnipotent (all powerful), omniscience (all-knowing), omnipresence (being present in all places at all times), and as having supreme rule over His Kingdom eternally. Nothing that exists is independent from Him, or beyond His control. He is sovereign over both nature and history.
He is sovereign over all nations, and kings rule at His pleasure and under His control. He chose the Nation of Israel as His chosen people, not for any inherent worth, but purely of His own will (Dt 7:6-8; 9:4-6). He chose certain individuals to lead these nations, sometimes before they were even born, for example, Jacob over Esau (Mal 1:1-5). He also hardened Pharaoh’s heart (Ex 4:21; 9:12) that led to Israel’s exodus from Egypt (Ex 4:21; 9:12).
When God Appears to Repent
The Bible contains a few occasions in which God appears to repent, capitulate or change His mind. These instances have resulted in erroneous claims that He sometimes changes His mind. For example, Genesis 6:5-7 states that God “regretted” that He made human beings to live on the earth. In addition, in Exodus 32, God told Moses that He was planning to destroy the people and remake a great nation through Moses. Moses then intervened and God appeared to change His mind. To answer this claim, we can quote Jeremiah 18:7-10 in which God promises, If at any time I announce that a nation or kingdom is to be uprooted, torn down and destroyed, and if that nation I warned repents of its evil, then I will relent and not inflict on it the disaster I had planned. And if at another time I announce that a nation or kingdom is to be built up and planted, and if it does evil in my sight and does not obey me, then I will reconsider the good I had intended to do for it. In addition, the Bible authors sometimes use anthropomorphic language (attributing human traits such as emotions to God) to help their readers better understand Him. For example, God is a Spirit but the author speaks of His eyes because He sees all, or His “arm” or “hand” to refer to His strength in relation to His mighty deeds. Thus, even if our limited language may appear to limit God, the only limits are those He put upon Himself.
“Intrusions” on God’s Perfect Plan
At the end of the sixth day of Creation, “God saw all that he had made, and it was very good” (Gen 1:31). Yet, we can look all around us today and see things that are not good. Does this mean that God lost control along the way? The answer is and emphatic “no”! We know that sin entered the world (Genesis 3) when the first humans, who had been created with a certain amount of free will, chose to disobey God, sin and rebellion against God entered the world. These things however, constituted an intrusion into God’s perfect creation, which He allowed. We often wonder why God created humans with the ability to sin and rebel. This subject has been debated for centuries. A partial answer may be that, to freely love, one must also have the ability to freely reject someone. We can however, accept that God created the best of all worlds. In addition, we have His promise that God will work all things together for good for those who love Him (See Romans 8:8-28, particularly verse 28). For additional comments, please check out our related article, The Sovereignty of God and the Free Will of Man.
Development of the Doctrine of God’s Sovereign Power in the Early Church (First Five Centuries AD)
In the first few centuries after the death and resurrection of Christ, early
Christians held to these scriptural ideas, but faced
the challenge of articulating them in a way to convince a world permeated with Hellenistic
ideas. The teachings of
God’s divine power and sovereignty were debated and intertwined with Roman philosophical ideas
such as fate, human free
will vs God’s sovereignty, and the nature of His other attributes.
In the first two centuries AD, the early church fathers continued to draw heavily from the OT Jewish Scriptures, and from certain New Testament (NT) passages that were circulating amongst the churches. Thus they were able to refine the doctrine of God’s sovereignty through apologetics by arguing against the various heresies that kept popping up. Clement of Rome, considered to be the first church father (thought by some to have been ordained by the Apostle Peter and died ~100 AD), and Ignatius of Antioch (~35–108) both placed a great emphasis on God’s authority over creation and salvation as displayed through Christ. In the second century, Justin Martyr (~100-165), in defending God’s sovereignty against Jewish and pagan commentaries, argued that God’s power was expressed through His creation and redemption, contrary to the critics who claimed His rule was arbitrary. In addition, Irenaeus of Lyons (~130-202) in Against Heresies, argued against the Gnostics who claimed that other gods created the universe, while affirming that the One True Sovereign God created and governs all things according to His purpose.
In the third century, we witness the attempt to balance the sovereignty of God with the free will of man. Debates began about how much free will that humans possess, and how to reconcile our free will with God’s autonomy. Origen of Alexandria (~185–254) was one of the first to wrestle the truths of God’s sovereignty in relationship with human responsibility. In On First Principles, he argued that God’s foreknowledge does not negate the free will of humans, but actually preserved divine omniscience and human moral activity. His views, however, later sparked controversy for leaning toward universalism (the view that all people would be saved), and this view was eventually condemned as heresy by the church in 553. A contemporary of Origin, Cyprian of Carthage (~200–258) argued that God’s sovereignty was based in church governance, arguing that divine authority is carried out by the Church’s unity under bishops (On the Unity of the Church). This theory is still held by many modern-day Roman Catholics.
The fourth century ushered in the Trinitarian and Christological debates. This was an attempt to clarify the doctrine of God’s sovereignty within the doctrine of the Trinity. This gave rise to the development of the doctrine of consubstantiality, that states that, while there are three distinct persons in the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), they all share the same divine essence. They are also co-equal and co-eternal, such that there is no hierarchy present within their relationship. Athanasius (~296–373) defended the Son’s consubstantiality with the Father in On the Incarnation and at the Council of Nicaea, ensuring that God’s sovereign power is equally shared within the Trinity. Later in the fourth century, the Cappadocian Fathers (Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa) eloquently described the Trinity as one divine essence (Gk: ousia) in three persons (Gk: hypostases), thus preserving God’s unified sovereignty while properly distinguishing the roles of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
In the fourth and fifth centuries, the debate of sovereignty and free will was significantly advanced by one of the most important theologians in history, Augustine of Hippo (354-430). He and his writings remain of such great importance that both the Protestants and Roman Catholics claim him as their own today. Regarding God’s sovereignty, Augustine argued that God’s sovereignty is absolute, including His creation, providence, and salvation. He also held that, due to human sinfulness, divine grace was absolutely required for salvation per Romans 8:29-30. For those God foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, that he might be the firstborn among many brothers and sisters. And those he predestined, he also called; those he called, he also justified; those he justified, he also glorified. Thus, God’s foreknowledge and omnipotence do not negate human responsibility but operate in mysterious harmony. Augustine’s views, developed and explained in his two major works, Confessions and City of God, interpreted God’s sovereignty as both transcendent (above or outside of creation) and immanent (active within history). During this time, Pelagius argued that humans could attain righteousness apart from God’s grace. The Council of Carthage in 418 AD condemned Palagianism and affirmed that God’s grace was absolutely necessary for salvation, thus upholding Augustine’s view.
By the time of the Council of Chalcedon (451), the early church had established a framework where God’s absolute power was elevated to the status as a core doctrine consisting of core tenets such as God being able to do all things that are consistent with His nature, and that He possessed supreme authority over creation and history. In addition God ordains all that happens, including the eternal destiny of all humans. Thus, although many aspects of our subject doctrines had yet to be resolved into a universal doctrine, the theological framework had been laid for the medieval and Reformation debates that would further refine the doctrines.
Sixth - Tenth Century AD
During this period, Christianity continued to spread throughout the known world, particularly in Europe and Asia. Theologians continued to build upon the doctrines of the first five centuries. However, although church leaders continued to debate our subject of God’s sovereignty and man’s free will, there were no major theological developments on our subject. Therefore, we skip ahead to the Eleventh Century.
Further Development in the Medieval Period (11th - 14th Centuries AD)
The Medieval Period (also called the Middle Ages) actually began in 476 AD with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and lasted until the beginning of the Renaissance and Age of Discovery, sometime around the end of the Fifteenth Century. For convenience however, historians typically date the period from about 500 AD to 1500 AD. That said, we’ll primarily focus on the 11th to 14th centuries, since the dominant intellectual movement known as Medieval Scholasticism peaked during that time. This movement attempted to understand the world and discovering truth by reconciling Christian theology with classical philosophy, particularly that of Aristotle (384-322 BC), whose methods were regaining popularity. This involved attempting to resolve difficulties by didactic reasoning, or synthesizing between various opposing ideas to obtain a more complex understanding. In addition, we begin to see the development and integration of the aforementioned sub-doctrine of the “Absolute” versus “Ordained” Power of God. From this point forward, we’ll attempt to integrate a theological and historical development of the this important sub-doctrine within the overall doctrine of God's sovereign power..
Doctrine of the “Absolute” versus “Ordained” Power of God
This sub-doctrine basically attempts to harmonize between God's unrestricted omnipotence, power and freedom and the reliable, ordered framework of creation, salvation, and natural laws that God has chosen to establish. In essence, absolute power (Latin: potentia absoluta) refers to what God could theoretically do with His infinite power, unbound by any self-imposed limits or the current order of things, such as performing actions (miracles) that contradict established norms. Typically excluded are logical impossibilities like creating a square circle. By contrast, His ordained power (Latin: potentia ordinata) denotes the power that God actually exercises within the contingent but dependable system he has ordained through his will, promises, and covenants to maintain stability in the universe and the process of salvation, that is to say, what He has specifically chosen to do. In other words, God places self-imposed limits on His ordained power by choice to maintain a consistent and moral order (Aquinas).
The doctrine is essential for understanding various theological concepts, including divine will versus human freedom, the “problem” of evil, and the nature of God's various actions in the world. The doctrine of God’s absolute and ordained power is a powerful theological tool for understanding the relationship between God’s potential and actual actions, offering insights into the nature of divine agency, and the relationship between God and His created world.
In short, the doctrine of absolute versus ordained power of God distinguishes between what God can do (His limitless potential) and what He has chosen to do (His self-imposed commitment to a consistent order). It balances God’s infinite freedom with His faithfulness, and helps to develop and explain theological discussions regarding divine action, miracles, and the nature of creation.
Theological Development of the “Absolute” versus “Ordained” Power of God
The distinction between God’s absolute and ordained power emerged more clearly in medieval scholasticism as theologians continued to wrestle with questions regarding divine omnipotence, free will, and the created order. The first major theologian of the time was Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109). Anselm’s Proslogion and Cur Deus Homo (Latin for “Why the God Man” or “Why God Became Man”) examined God’s omnipotence in relation to His necessity and goodness. He argued that God’s actions are consistent with His rational nature, but the idea of absolute power, defined as what God could do beyond His revealed will, began to surface in theological debates about divine possibilities.
Shortly afterward, Peter Lombard (~1096–1160) deliberated on God’s power in terms of what is possible within the divine nature. This work, entitled Sentences, became a standard theological text and spurred later thinkers to further refine the distinction between absolute and ordained power. From this point, theologians began distinguishing between what God could do (absolute power) and what God has chosen to do (ordained power) to explain why certain things happen in the world while others do not, despite God’s infinite power.
Now enters Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), arguably the most important theologian of the medieval period. Aquinas was an Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, and theologian who is widely regarded as one of the most influential thinkers in Western history. He is the father of Thomism, a school of thought that seeks to synthesize Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy. Aquinas formalized the distinction between God’s absolute and ordained power in works like Summa Theologica (q.25,a.5), one of the most important works up to his time. He defined potentia absoluta as God’s infinite capacity to do all that is logically possible and consistent with His nature. He then defined potentia ordinata as God’s power that He expressed through the established laws of nature and divine will, as revealed in creation and scripture. Aquinas also emphasized that God’s ordained power reflects His wisdom and justice, limiting the speculative scope of absolute power to avoid arbitrariness.
The final theologian of this period that we’ll mention is Duns Scotus (1266–1308). Scotus expanded the concept of potentia absoluta, emphasizing God’s freedom to act beyond the current order of creation. He argued that God could established a different order of salvation or natural laws, yet He freely chooses the ordained order. This opened the door to more speculative theological questions about divine possibilities.
Historical Development of the “Absolute” versus “Ordained” Power of God
As we get to the Middle Ages, we begin to see the development of the aforementioned sub-doctrine of the “Absolute” versus “Ordained” Power of God. Although Augustine did not employ the explicit terms that we now use to designate this important sub-doctrine of God’s sovereignty, his teachings on the sub-topic laid the theological foundations for the distinction between God’s absolute power (potentia absoluta) and ordained power (potentia ordinata). In simplest terms, God’s absolute power refers to God's ability to do anything that is not a logical contradiction, or goes against an established definition, since this would devolve into absurdity. This includes the ability to suspend or alter the natural laws of nature that He originally established at the Creation. God’s ordained power is that which He does within the confines of the world that He created and the laws that He established. We could also say that God’s absolute power is that which He is able to do while His ordained power is what He has chosen to do. Thus, His ordained power excludes anything that He would never do, such as stop loving us.
For example, Paul wrote to Timothy that, Paul, a servant of God and an apostle of Jesus Christ to further the faith of God’s elect and their knowledge of the truth that leads to godliness— in the hope of eternal life, which God, who does not lie, promised before the beginning of time (Titus 1:1-2). Other English Bible versions translate the phrase “who does not lie” as “who never lies” or “who cannot lie”. This would be an example of God’s ordained power since in His absolute power, He certainly has the power to lie, but due to His perfect nature, He would never lie. To give an example related to our eternal salvation, we turn to the time of Jesus’ arrest at Gethsemane in Matthew 26:47-55. When the soldiers, who had been tipped off to Jesus’ whereabouts by Judas, came to arrest Jesus, one of his companions (probably Peter) drew his sword in defense. Jesus then commanded Peter to put away his sword. He the said “Do you think I cannot call on my Father, and he will at once put at my disposal more than twelve legions of angels? But how then would the Scriptures be fulfilled that say it must happen in this way?” (Mt 26:53-54). Thus, in order to go to the cross to provide a way of salvation for all believers, in His ordained power, He was self-prevented from calling down the angels to save Him from the cross. In His absolute power however, He could have called down the angels, but that would have doomed all humans to an eternal hell.
So in God’s absolute power, God can do anything except as noted above (contradictions or against definitions), while His ordained power requires Him to remain true to His perfect nature and eternal plan.
Anselm of Canterbury, a monk and theologian in the late eleventh century, may have been the first to use the actual terms of “potentia absoluta” and “potentia ordinata”. In his works Proslogion (1077) and Cur Deus Homo, translated “Why the God-Man” (~1097) he explored God’s omnipotence in relation to His necessity and goodness. He argued that God’s actions are consistent with His rational nature (ordained power), but the idea of absolute power (generally defined at the time as what God could do beyond His revealed will) began to surface in debates. Shortly thereafter, the formulation of the theological document on ordained and absolute power began with Peter Lombard (~1096–1160). In his Four Books of Sentences, Lombard, Bishop of Paris, discussed God’s power in terms of what is possible within the divine nature. His works became a standard university textbook that influenced later scholars to continue to refine the distinction between God’s absolute and ordained power.
Others credit the first use of the actual terms to the great 13th Century theologian, Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), who further formalized the distinction between the absolute and ordained power of God. In his most famous works, Summa Theologica, (q25, a5), he defined God’s absolute power as the infinite capacity to do all that is logically possible and consistent with His nature (e.g. God cannot create a square circle or act against His own goodness). He also wrote of God’s ordained power being expressed through the established laws of nature and His divine will, as revealed in both creation and scripture. Aquinas also emphasized that God’s ordained power reflected His wisdom and justice, while limiting the speculative scope of absolute power to avoid arbitrariness.
Shortly afterward, Duns Scotus (1266–1308), an important philosopher and theologian, expanded the concept of potentia absoluta, placing an emphasis on God’s freedom to act beyond the current order established at creation. He argued that God could have established a completely different order of salvation or natural laws, but He freely chooses the ordained order. This opened the door to more speculative theological questions about divine possibilities (what God could have chosen to do).
Biblical Origin of the Term “Ordained”
Now that we’ve made it this far in showing the development of the doctrine, it’s certainly fair to step back and ask, “Where do we find this doctrine in the Bible?” The exact verbatim phrase “ordained power of God” does not appear in the biblical texts. However, the concept of God ordaining power or authority is found closely tied to several biblical passages. Perhaps the best known is Romans 13:1-2, which states in the King James Version: “Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God: the powers that be are ordained of God”. This passage, written by the Apostle Paul in the New Testament (~55-57 AD), is the earliest known appearance of the concept that earthly authorities are established or “ordained” by God. The Greek verb meaning to appoint, to order, or to ordain is tasso, but Paul used the word tetagmenoi, which is a perfect middle passive participle that denotes a completed action with results in the present. Other English Bible translations of the word in this passage are “instituted” (ESV, Berean Literal, CSB, HCSB, NTSV), “appointed” (Berean Standard, NKJV, WEB, NET, Young’s Literal), “established” (NASB), (NAB), (Geneva Bible 1587), “ordained” (KJV), (ASV), (ERV). “put in place” (Amplified), and “ordered” (Smith’s Literal).
The concept of divinely ordained authority is often found in the OT, pre-dating Christ’s first advent and appears in various forms across other cultures. For example, the concept was used in Egyptian and other traditions where rulers claimed to be backed by divine powers. In Christian theology, this idea was further developed in the medieval period through the doctrine of the “divine right of kings”, which asserted that monarchs derive their authority directly from God.
Thus, while certain theologians such as Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) discussed divine authority, with Aquinas even distinguishing between God’s absolute and ordained power, no single individual is credited with originating the precise phrase “ordained power of God”. Instead, it emerges from a broader theological tradition rooted in Pauline scripture and developed through centuries of Christian thought. Augustine alluded to it in City of God, but if I had to guess regarding who first used the exact phrase, I think I would go with Thomas Aquinas. Yet I must repeat that this is only a guess.
Further Development during the Reformation (16th - 17th Centuries AD)
We come now to one of the richest periods for theological development, that of the Reformation and Post-Reformation Era. During this time, the doctrine of God’s divine sovereignty took on new significance as the debates over the doctrines of predestination and human free will greatly intensified. Undoubtedly, the two most famous figures of the day were Martin Luther (1483–1546) and John Calvin (1509–1564). Luther is credited with sparking the Reformation by nailing his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the Castle Church in 1517, challenging the Catholic Church on several of its practices. Luther in particular disagreed with the church policy of the sale of indulgences (basically attempting to buy a persons way into heaven by donating money or property to the church). Luther also believed that salvation came by faith alone (Sola Fide) and that ultimate authority came from Scripture alone (Sola Scriptura). These actions resulted with Luther being excommunicated from the church in 1521.
Luther’s theology, particularly in The Bondage of the Will (1525), placed a great emphasis on God’s absolute sovereignty. Although he also focused on God’s ordained will as revealed in scripture, his view of divine omnipotence strongly implied that God’s absolute power transcends human understanding. Luther was cautious about speculating on the doctrine and primarily focused on God’s revealed will.
While Luther continued to focus on attempting to reform the Roman Catholic Church, it eventually became clear that the differences between the church and the Scriptures were too great to overcome. Thus, a split was inevitable and it fell on John Calvin (1509–1564) to develop a biblically based theology for the Reformed Church going forward. Calvin’s most important theological work, Institutes of the Christian Religion, developed and expanded for over two decades, became the most popular reformed theological work in history. As a result, Calvin’s theology and Reformed theology is often thought of as one. It is unfortunate and misleading that that some later theologians have shrunk Calvin’s theology down to five points popularized with the acronym, TULIP (Total Depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited Atonement, Irresistible Grace, and Perseverance of the Saints). This would give the impression that Calvin’s theology was limited to a small portion of the theological category of Soteriology (Salvation). Yet Calvin wrote extensively across all theological disciplines. In just his Institutes of the Christian Religion alone, he published multiple volumes and was constantly expanding and revising this work over the span of almost 25 years, not to mention his published bible commentaries and pastoral writings and notes. His work also included economics and political writings such that, many have called him the theological founder of America, even though he died in 1564, over sixty years before the Pilgrims landed.
Regarding our subject doctrine, Calvin stressed God’s absolute sovereignty, particularly in predestination. He viewed God’s ordained power as the expression of His eternal decree, but similar to Luther, he avoided extensive speculation about absolute power, urging great caution when probing into God’s hidden will. Calvin also emphasized divine sovereignty and providence, aligning with the idea of God's ordained power as the expression of divine will in history. Reformers generally preferred to engage with these concepts indirectly. Therefore, the distinction between absolute and ordained power became less prominent as Protestant theology focused more on scriptural authority than scholastic categories. Yet, the sovereignty of God remained a central doctrine in Christian theology, particularly emphasized in Reformed / Calvinist traditions, but still held in various forms across most branches of Christianity. It continued to refer to the absolute authority, rule, and control of God over all creation, history, and every detail of existence.
Popular themes in Reformed circles were (and still are) predestination (God as Creator
and Ruler), illustrated by the Potter and the clay (Rm 9:20-21; also Eph
1:3-14), and God’s providence and control (Eph 1:11). There was also
an emphasis on the role of Christ as the mediator of God’s sovereignty,
with authority given to Him by the Father (Mt 28:18,
Php 2:9–11).
Meanwhile, while Protestants began placing less distinctions between our subject sub-doctrines in order to focus on scriptural authority, Catholic theologians during the Counter-Reformation, such as those at the Council of Trent, continued to place a greater distinction in order to defend doctrines like miracles and divine grace, balancing God’s freedom with the reliability of the sacraments and natural law. Yet, Reformed and Catholic theologians, such as Francisco Suárez (1548–1617) and later Protestant scholastics like Francis Turretin (1623–1687), continued to refine the distinction. They used it to address questions about miracles, divine providence, and the contingency of the created order. For example, miracles were often seen as instances where God’s absolute power temporarily superseded the ordained natural order.
Key Thoughts, Debates, and Theological Issues
The debate surrounding the doctrine of God’s absolute and ordained will continually sought to balance God’s infinite power with His consistent, rational, and moral character. His absolute power stressed divine freedom, while His ordained power stressed God’s commitment to a stable and intelligible creation. The distinction influenced discussions on necessity, contingency, and the problem of evil. We often ponder if God in His absolute power could have created a world without suffering, and if so, why didn’t He. Was He self-limited by His ordained power? Debates over His absolute and ordained power must be kept in a certain balance. An overemphasis on absolute power could raise concerns over nominalism, the philosophical belief that universals (abstract concepts like “goodness” or “humanity”) do not exist as independent entities, but are merely names, or labels applied to individual, concrete things. This raised concerns about divine arbitrariness, while overemphasis on ordained power risked putting limits on God’s freedom. Universalism still remained as a holdover from William of Ockham (1287-1347), an English philosopher and theologian.
Returning to the problem of evil, the debate still continues today (and probably will until Jesus returns). Therefore, we won’t attempt to solve it here, but will make a few brief remarks. The primary question is why would an all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good God create a world full of evil and suffering. Of course, the world was created perfectly good (Gen 1:31). Evil only came into the world when the first humans sinned (Gen 3). So the question becomes, why did God allow them to sin? The short answer is, He allowed for the possibility of sin in order that humans would have a certain amount of free will. This included the freedom to choose good or evil. The alternative was that He could have created us as robots. We might also ask, “if God is all powerful and all-good, why does He allow evil to continue?” The Bible does not answer this question directly (although the OT Book of Job is a good start - see also Isaiah 55:8-9). The good news is that evil was defeated at the Cross and that all things will be set right in the future (Revelation 21:1-4).
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the doctrine of God’s divine power was revisited by philosophers such as René Descartes (1596-1650). Descartes leaned toward a fairly radical view of God's absolute power, suggesting that God could even alter logical truths, such as making two plus two equal to five, or making a square circle. This view was highly controversial and largely rejected by later thinkers. We also previously pointed out that this would result in a devolution into absurdity. As an overall whole, the rise of rationalism and Enlightenment thought shifted the primary focus away from theological distinctions toward natural theology and deism, thus reducing emphasis on the absolute/ordained power structure.
Key Theological Traditions and Heresies
In the Reformed / Calvinist view (Augustine, Calvin, Edwards, Sproul), God precisely governs every atomic particle of the Creation, every thought, every sin, and every salvation. Nothing is ultimately beyond His control. Compatibilism (the philosophical idea that free will and determinism are compatible even though they might seem contradictory), is usually affirmed. Thus, human responsibility is real and compatible with divine sovereignty.
In the Arminian / Wesleyan view (John Wesley), God is
sovereign but has sovereignly chosen to limit the exercise of His power in
certain areas (particularly human free will) in order to make genuine love and relationship
possible. In this view, God’s sovereignty places more emphasis on authority than exhaustive control.
A somewhat popular view is that of Open Theism. This heretical view,
still held by some modern theologians (and growing in popularity in modern
times, particularly in the last few decades), falsely teaches that God’s
knowledge is not complete, but basically that He is learning as he goes.
It claims that God is sovereign but that the future
is still unsettled. It further denies that God foreordains or foreknows all future
human free
choices exhaustively.
Here is a summary of the sovereignty vs free will question from the 1640s Westminster Shorter Catechism (Q 7) (slightly updated language) “God’s sovereignty is His supreme power and authority by which, as Creator and Lord of all, He freely and unchangeably ordains whatsoever comes to pass, yet without being the author of sin, nor violating the will of the creature, nor removing the liberty or responsibility of intelligent creatures.”
A practical implication of this doctrine should be of comfort to all God’s children. Nothing can ultimately impede, circumvent or obstruct God’s plan or harm His people beyond what He permits for their good (Rom 8:28). God’s sovereignty guarantees that there is no reality outside of His ultimate control. He remains perfectly good, wise, and just—a truth that is meant to produce awe, peace, and boldness in believers.
Further Development in Modern Times (18th Century to Today)
As we move into what is considered modern times, and draw closer to the end times. it is not surprising that we are beginning to see an abandonment of orthodox theology, not just with the doctrine of God’s sovereignty, but with biblical views in general. The Apostle Paul predicted this in his second letter to Timothy:
But mark this: There will be terrible times in the last days. People will be lovers of themselves, lovers of money, boastful, proud, abusive, disobedient to their parents, ungrateful, unholy, without love, unforgiving, slanderous, without self-control, brutal, not lovers of the good, treacherous, rash, conceited, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God— having a form of godliness but denying its power. Have nothing to do with such people (2Tim 3:1-5).
Beginning with the so-called Enlightenment, many theologians jettisoned sound biblical doctrines in favor of man-made philosophies. One of the first and more influential writers of the era was Voltaire (1694-1778), a philosopher, writer and historian. Like many others during his time, Voltaire questioned the idea of an omnipotent God who acted arbitrarily, favoring instead a view of God bound by rational laws. Thus, it is not surprising that the distinction between God’s absolute and ordained power became less prominent in the liberal theology that was being taught.
Next up was Karl Barth (1886-1968), a Swiss theologian, who is considered by many to be one of the greatest of the modern theologians, whose theology became known as Neo-Orthodoxy. His theology is very Christ-centric, in that God reveals everything through Jesus Christ, meaning God cannot be known apart from what is known in Christ. Much of his teaching were generally considered as orthodox, yet some of his teachings leaned toward universalism, the belief that all people would eventually be saved. This also affected his view on God’s sovereignty. In his Church Dogmatics, he emphasized God’s freedom but rooted it in His covenantal relationship with humanity, and thus basically attempted to merge God’s absolute and ordained power in God’s loving will.
Final Thoughts
As a ultra-quick review, the doctrine of absolute versus ordained power of God distinguishes between what God can do (His limitless potential) and what He has chosen to do (His self-imposed commitment to a consistent order). It balances God's infinite freedom with His faithfulness, shaping theological discussions about divine action, miracles, and the nature of creation.
As a whole, debates over the ordained versus the absolute power of God are much less prominent today. Yet, we still see the distinctions come up, primarily in debates over divine omnipotence vs the free will of man, and when discussing the problem of evil. We addressed the former in this article. If you'd like to check out our comments on the latter, please check out our related article, The Sovereignty of God and the Free Will of Man.